Question.1245 - Capstone Paper 1 Rosaivette Baez University of Massachusetts Lowell School of Criminology and Justice Studies CRIM4890 - Capstone Senior Seminar in Criminology & Criminal Justice Professor Ian A. Elliott, PhD March 1st, 2024 Capstone Paper 1 Police Crisis Intervention Teams and the Policing of Mental Illness: A Scholarly Examination Scope of the Problem: Mental Illness and Law Enforcement People with mental illness (PMI) are disproportionately represented in the criminal justice system (CJS).? Considering the scope of the issue from the standpoint of overrepresentation of individuals with mental illness (PMI) in the criminal justice system (CJS) is exposed to complexity; for instance, a study admits that one in four prison inmates suffer from mental illness, similar trends were seen in one in five state prisoners, the study was conducted by Treatment Advocacy Center in 2023, which also highlights the need for practical strategies that are dynamically positioned to suit the diversity rather than standardizing the Police Crisis Intervention Teams (CITs), to counter the confluence of mental illness and law enforcement (Fazel & Seewald, 2012).? This overrepresentation results from various factors, including: Criminalization of symptoms, wherein law enforcement tends to interlink behavior associated with mental illness with homelessness, loitering, or substance abuse seen from the light of criminalized activities that lead to police encounters and potential arrests; in addition to that, there is a lack of access to mental health care, certain factors like costs being on the higher side, stigma, or insufficient services that pushes the individuals with untreated mental illness vulnerable to involvement with the criminal justice system (CJS) (Willis et al., 2023). Thirdly, in the law enforcement call volume, it is seen that individuals who are vulnerable to mental illness are likely to call law enforcement for assistance with personal crises, leading to increased police contact (Roesch & Goossens, 2022). The relational interchange between mental illness and CJS raises concerns about the safety and well-being of both individuals with PMI and law enforcement personnel with similar intent, a recent study implied that those who are exposed to mental illness are likely to be involved in use-of-force incidents with police, and the outcomes were either grave injury or death at a higher rate than individuals without mental illness, while on the other than, due to changing nature of mental illness interlinked with societal and cultural diversity that makes the law enforcement officers vulnerable, since there is minimal scope to mitigate the possibility of standardizing training interventions and also lack of resources to effectively de-escalate situations (Ghelani, 2022).? History and Current Police Crisis Intervention Teams (CITs) Why CITs seem to be the right intervention for countering mental illness is drawn from the origin of how it was implemented as a response to the late 1980s mental health crisis in Memphis, Tennessee, when a man tragically died during police interaction, according to the American Academy of Psychiatry and Law (Williams, 2023).? Today, over 80% of law enforcement agencies have some form of CIT training, according to the Bureau of Justice Assistance (n.d.). However, the design and effectiveness of these programs vary significantly across jurisdictions, as noted in the Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law (2019) (Rohrer, 2021).? Considering the models that exist, traditional CIT, wherein officers are trained for specialized crisis intervention (40 hours) to address mental health awareness through de-escalation techniques dynamically; secondly, co-responder teams comprised of both police officers and mental health professionals respond to calls together such they can take control of the situation without any law enforcement mishaps, rather treat it with more listening and empathy, and also mobile crisis teams that solely focuses on mental health with professional specialized to handle it from a medical standpoint, either independently or in conjunction with law enforcement (O'Brien, 2023). Some of the successful examples could be experienced in Colorado and Tennessee, firstly considering Denver's CIT program that was implemented in the early 1980s; it was an establishment that served as a national model that boasted a 40-hour training program for officers that led to a significant decrease in the use of force in mental health calls and an increase in referrals to mental health services, that eventually opened the doors for a collaborative model of working calling in for national alliance and better handling of mental illness policing; Secondly, considering Memphis that could be referred to as the birthplace of the CIT model in 1987, resulted in a drastic decrease in officer-involved shootings of individuals subjected to mental health crisis and also various forms of de-escalation were experimented both on and off field, that was shared with various other experiences (Heck, 2017; Williams, 2023).? Although there is widespread adoption, research on CIT programs remains ongoing with mixed results, as highlighted in the Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law (2019) have reported positive outcomes, such as reduced use of force and increased diversion from the CJS (Police Quarterly, 2023), while others report limited impact causing inconsistencies that are attributed to several factors, including variation in program implementation, as the diverse design and implementation of CIT programs across agencies make comparisons and evaluations challenging (Willis et al., 2023).? Limited data collection: Consistent and comprehensive data collection on police-mental health encounters is crucial for accurately assessing the impact of CIT programs. Simultaneously, some of the challenges are - the effectiveness is questioned due to various aspects that play a vital influential role that pushes the CIT program to adapt to the vulnerability of the stakeholders involved; for instance, in 2020, California enacted a law directing CIT training for all law enforcement officers in the state (Helfgott et al., 2021). While the concerns about standardizing the training could compromise the quality and duration of CIT training across different jurisdictions, with this understanding last year, in 2023, New York City reported a program to expand its mobile crisis intervention units, pairing mental health professionals with police officers responding to mental health calls (Bowers, 2023). But it is also important to understand that CIT programs alone cannot address the root causes of police violence against people with mental illness, which include systemic racism and lack of investment in mental health resources. Methodological limitations: Many studies on CIT programs rely on observational data, making it difficult to establish clear causal relationships between the program and specific outcomes. Consequently, additional research is required to manage these knowledge gaps and better understand the effectiveness of CIT programs. This includes: Standardizing data collection practices to facilitate comparisons across different jurisdictions. Conducting longitudinal studies to track long-term outcomes for individuals who interact with CIT programs. Employing robust research methodologies that allow for causal inferences about the impact of CIT programs. Conclusion The overrepresentation of individuals with mental illness in the criminal justice system poses a significant challenge for both law enforcement and the mental health community. References Bowers, S. (2023).?The Community Response Program Model: An Alternative to Police in Responding to Mental Health Crises?(Doctoral dissertation, California State University, Long Beach). Fazel, S., & Seewald, K. (2012). Severe mental illness in 33 588 prisoners worldwide: systematic review and meta-regression analysis.?The British journal of psychiatry,?200(5), 364-373. Ghelani, A. (2022). Knowledge and skills for social workers on mobile crisis intervention teams. Clinical Social Work Journal, 50(4), 414-425. Heck, G. (2017). Safely reducing the use of deadly force by law enforcement officers: An analysis of three prominent training programs. Helfgott, J. B., Strah, B. M., Atherley, L., & Neidhart, E. (2021). Evaluation of CIT components of guardian law enforcement training.?Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology,?36, 403-422. O'Brien, J. (2023). Policies and strategies to strengthen the continuum of crisis services. Roesch, R., & Goossens, I. (2022). Improving police procedures for dealing with mental illness. Police Psychology, 173-188. Rohrer, A. J. (2021). Law enforcement and persons with mental illness: responding responsibly. Journal of police and criminal psychology, 36(2), 342-349. Williams Sr, R. G. (2023).?Understanding Officer's Perceptions of Crisis Intervention Training (CIT) when Dealing with Persons in Crisis (PIC)?(Doctoral dissertation, Northcentral University). Willis, T., Kern, L. J., Hedden, B. J., Nelson, V., Comartin, E., & Kubiak, S. (2023). The impact of Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) training on police use of force. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 62(3), 157-173.
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